VIP

Research Overview

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) serves as an essential research tool for investigating fundamental neurological, immunological, and endocrine mechanisms in laboratory settings. Discovered by Said and Mutt in 1970 during isolation of secretin from porcine intestine, VIP has emerged as one of the most widely distributed and functionally diverse neuropeptides in mammalian systems. The peptide’s name reflects its initial characterization as a potent intestinal vasodilator, though subsequent research has revealed far more extensive biological roles.

VIP belongs to the secretin/glucagon peptide superfamily, sharing structural homology with peptides including secretin, glucagon, PACAP (pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide), and PHI (peptide histidine isoleucine). This structural relationship reflects common evolutionary origins and overlapping receptor pharmacology, making VIP valuable for comparative peptide research. The peptide functions primarily through two G-protein coupled receptors—VPAC1 and VPAC2—both activating adenylate cyclase and increasing intracellular cAMP levels.

Laboratory investigations of VIP span multiple research domains: neuroscience studies examining neuroprotection and neurotransmission, immunology research investigating anti-inflammatory pathways and immune cell modulation, chronobiology studies of circadian rhythm regulation, cardiovascular research on vasodilation mechanisms, respiratory system investigations, and gastrointestinal motility studies. The peptide’s widespread distribution in both central and peripheral nervous systems, combined with receptor expression across diverse tissue types, provides researchers with a valuable tool for studying integrated physiological systems.

VIP research demonstrates the peptide’s critical roles in biological rhythm regulation, particularly in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) where VIP neurons coordinate circadian rhythms. Studies investigate VIP’s neuroprotective properties against excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammatory injury. Immunological research examines VIP’s potent anti-inflammatory effects and regulation of T cell differentiation, cytokine production, and macrophage function. Cardiovascular studies focus on VIP’s vasodilatory mechanisms and blood flow regulation.

Molecular Characteristics

Complete Specifications:

• CAS Registry Number: 40077-57-4
• Molecular Weight: 3,326.7 Da
• Molecular Formula: C₁₄₇H₂₃₈N₄₄O₄₂S
• Amino Acid Sequence: His-Ser-Asp-Ala-Val-Phe-Thr-Asp-Asn-Tyr-Thr-Arg-Leu-Arg-Lys-Gln-Met-Ala-Val-Lys-Lys-Tyr-Leu-Asn-Ser-Ile-Leu-Asn-NH₂
• Length: 28 amino acids
• C-terminal: Amidated (critical for biological activity)
• Disulfide Bonds: None
• PubChem CID: 16129682
• Peptide Classification: Neuropeptide, member of secretin/glucagon superfamily
• Appearance: White to off-white lyophilized powder
• Solubility: Water, bacteriostatic water, phosphate buffered saline, physiological saline
• Isoelectric Point (pI): ~10.5 (highly basic peptide)

The peptide’s 28-amino acid sequence contains several structurally significant features. The C-terminal amidation is essential for receptor binding and biological activity; non-amidated forms show dramatically reduced potency. The sequence includes multiple basic residues (histidine, arginine, lysine) contributing to the high isoelectric point and positive charge at physiological pH. Tyrosine residues at positions 10 and 22 provide sites for potential post-translational modifications in biological systems. The methionine at position 17 represents the only sulfur-containing amino acid, making VIP susceptible to oxidation under certain conditions.

Structural studies reveal VIP adopts an alpha-helical conformation in membrane-mimicking environments, with the N-terminal region (residues 1-14) forming an amphipathic helix critical for receptor binding. The C-terminal region (residues 15-28) also contributes to receptor interactions and biological activity. The peptide’s secondary structure influences receptor selectivity between VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors.

Receptor Pharmacology and Signaling Mechanisms

VIP exerts biological effects primarily through two high-affinity G-protein coupled receptors:

VPAC1 Receptor (VIPR1):

• Distribution: Widespread in CNS, peripheral organs, immune cells
• Affinity: Kd ~1 nM for VIP
• Signaling: Gs-protein coupling, adenylate cyclase activation, cAMP production
• Also binds PACAP with similar affinity

VPAC2 Receptor (VIPR2):

• Distribution: CNS (particularly SCN), smooth muscle, peripheral tissues
• Affinity: Kd ~1 nM for VIP
• Signaling: Gs-protein coupling, adenylate cyclase activation, cAMP production
• Also binds PACAP with similar affinity

Signaling Cascades:
Both VPAC receptors couple to Gs proteins, activating adenylate cyclase and increasing intracellular cAMP levels. This triggers downstream effects including:

• PKA (protein kinase A) activation
• CREB (cAMP response element-binding protein) phosphorylation
• Gene transcription regulation
• Ion channel modulation (particularly potassium and calcium channels)
• Phospholipase C activation (secondary pathway)
• MAPK pathway modulation

The overlapping receptor pharmacology between VIP and PACAP provides research opportunities to investigate receptor subtype-specific effects using selective agonists and antagonists. Receptor distribution patterns determine tissue-specific responses to VIP administration in experimental models.

Pharmacokinetic Profile in Research Models

VIP pharmacokinetic characterization in preclinical research reveals important properties for experimental design:

Plasma Half-Life and Metabolism:

• Extremely short plasma half-life: <2 minutes in circulation
• Rapid enzymatic degradation by proteases including:
• Neutral endopeptidase (NEP)
• Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV)
• Mast cell chymase
• Other serum proteases
• Metabolic instability limits systemic administration approaches
• Primary cleavage sites: Tyr10-Thr11 and Lys20-Lys21 bonds

Distribution:

• Wide distribution reflecting extensive receptor presence
• Blood-brain barrier penetration limited (large, charged peptide)
• Local tissue effects predominate over systemic effects
• Highest concentrations in neural tissues, GI tract, respiratory system

Administration Routes in Research:

• Intravenous: Immediate effects but very brief duration
• Subcutaneous/intramuscular: Slightly extended duration
• Intranasal: Investigated for potential CNS delivery
• Intrathecal: Direct CNS administration in specific research protocols
• Local application: Tissue-specific research applications

Implications for Research Design:
The extremely short half-life necessitates continuous infusion protocols or frequent dosing in many experimental paradigms. This pharmacokinetic limitation has driven research into modified VIP analogs with enhanced stability, including:

• Stearyl-Nle17-VIP (extended half-life through fatty acid modification)
• Various N-terminal modifications to resist DPP-IV cleavage
• Cyclized VIP analogs with enhanced proteolytic resistance
• PEGylated derivatives for extended circulation time

Researchers studying VIP’s acute effects can utilize the short half-life advantageously for temporal control in experimental protocols. Studies examining sustained effects typically employ continuous infusion systems or repeated dosing schedules.

Research Applications

Neuroprotection and Neuroscience Research

VIP serves as a valuable research tool for investigating neuroprotective mechanisms and neural signaling:

Neuroprotection Studies:

• Excitotoxicity Research: Investigation of VIP’s protective effects against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity and NMDA receptor overactivation
• Oxidative Stress Protection: Studies examining antioxidant mechanisms and reduction of reactive oxygen species
• Apoptosis Regulation: Research on anti-apoptotic signaling pathways and cell survival mechanisms
• Neuroinflammation Modulation: Investigation of microglial activation, cytokine regulation, and inflammatory response in neural tissue
• Ischemia/Reperfusion Models: Studies in stroke models and cerebral ischemia examining VIP’s protective mechanisms

Neurotransmission and Neuromodulation:

• Synaptic Plasticity Research: Investigation of VIP’s effects on long-term potentiation, synaptic strength, and neural plasticity
• GABAergic Signaling Studies: VIP’s interactions with inhibitory neurotransmission in cortical circuits
• Neurodevelopment Research: Studies examining VIP’s roles in neural development, migration, and differentiation
• Memory and Learning Models: Investigation of VIP’s contributions to hippocampal function and memory consolidation

Neurodegenerative Disease Research:

• Alzheimer’s Disease Models: Studies examining VIP’s effects on amyloid-beta toxicity, tau pathology, and cognitive function
• Parkinson’s Disease Research: Investigation of dopaminergic neuron protection and motor function
• Multiple Sclerosis Models: Research on demyelination, remyelination, and immune-mediated neural damage

Research protocols employ neuronal cell cultures (primary neurons, PC12 cells, SH-SY5Y cells), brain slice preparations, organotypic cultures, and in vivo neurotoxicity models to characterize VIP’s neuroprotective mechanisms and neural signaling effects.

Immune Modulation and Anti-Inflammatory Research

VIP demonstrates potent immunomodulatory effects making it valuable for investigating immune regulation:

T Cell Modulation Research:

• Th1/Th2 Balance Studies: Investigation of VIP’s effects shifting T cell differentiation toward Th2 phenotypes
• Regulatory T Cell Induction: Research on Treg development, function, and immunosuppressive mechanisms
• T Cell Activation Studies: Examination of TCR signaling, co-stimulation, and activation threshold modulation
• Cytokine Production Research: Studies on IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10, and other cytokine regulation

Macrophage and Dendritic Cell Research:

• Macrophage Polarization: Investigation of M1/M2 polarization and alternative activation pathways
• Dendritic Cell Maturation: Studies on DC differentiation, antigen presentation, and T cell priming
• Cytokine Regulation: Research on TNF-α, IL-6, IL-12, IL-10 production by myeloid cells
• Phagocytosis Studies: Effects on phagocytic function and pathogen clearance

Anti-Inflammatory Pathway Investigation:

• NF-κB Pathway Modulation: Studies examining VIP’s inhibition of NF-κB activation and pro-inflammatory gene transcription
• STAT Signaling Research: Investigation of STAT1 and STAT6 phosphorylation and downstream effects
• COX-2 and iNOS Regulation: Research on inflammatory enzyme expression and activity
• Chemokine Modulation: Studies on chemokine production and immune cell recruitment

Autoimmune Disease Models:

• Rheumatoid Arthritis Research: Studies in collagen-induced arthritis and other arthritis models
• Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Investigation in colitis models examining intestinal inflammation
• Multiple Sclerosis Models: Research in EAE (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis)
• Type 1 Diabetes Models: Studies in NOD mice and other autoimmune diabetes models

Laboratory protocols utilize immune cell cultures (T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells), co-culture systems, flow cytometry analysis, cytokine measurement assays, and in vivo autoimmune disease models to characterize VIP’s immunomodulatory mechanisms.

Circadian Rhythm and Chronobiology Research

VIP plays critical roles in circadian rhythm regulation, particularly in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN):

SCN Function Studies:

• Circadian Pacemaker Research: Investigation of VIP neurons in SCN rhythm generation and maintenance
• Neuronal Synchronization: Studies on VIP’s role coordinating individual neuronal oscillators within SCN
• Phase Shifting Research: Examination of VIP’s effects on circadian phase responses to light and other stimuli
• SCN Output Pathways: Investigation of VIP’s role transmitting circadian signals to downstream targets

Circadian Gene Expression:

• Clock Gene Regulation: Studies on Period, Cryptochrome, BMAL1, and Clock gene expression rhythms
• Entrainment Mechanisms: Research on light-induced gene expression and circadian resetting
• Peripheral Oscillator Studies: Investigation of VIP’s effects on peripheral tissue circadian rhythms

Sleep-Wake Cycle Research:

• Sleep Architecture Studies: Examination of VIP’s effects on sleep stages, REM/NREM ratios
• Sleep Homeostasis: Research on sleep pressure accumulation and dissipation
• Arousal and Alertness: Investigation of VIP’s roles in wake promotion and arousal mechanisms

Circadian Disruption Models:

• Jet Lag Models: Studies examining VIP in rapid phase shift paradigms
• Shift Work Simulations: Research on circadian misalignment and adaptation
• Aging and Circadian Dysfunction: Investigation of age-related circadian rhythm deterioration

Research approaches include SCN slice electrophysiology, wheel-running activity monitoring, gene expression analysis across circadian cycles, and behavioral circadian rhythm assessment in various experimental models.

Cardiovascular and Vascular Research

VIP’s potent vasodilatory effects make it valuable for cardiovascular research:

Vasodilation Mechanism Studies:

• Endothelial Function: Investigation of endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilation
• Nitric Oxide Pathway: Research on NO synthase activation, NO production, and cGMP signaling
• Potassium Channel Activation: Studies on K+ channel opening and membrane hyperpolarization
• Calcium Regulation: Examination of intracellular calcium reduction in smooth muscle

Blood Flow and Perfusion Research:

• Cerebral Blood Flow: Investigation of VIP’s effects on brain perfusion and neurovascular coupling
• Coronary Circulation: Studies on cardiac perfusion and coronary vasodilation
• Peripheral Circulation: Research on limb blood flow and microcirculation
• Organ-Specific Perfusion: Investigation of VIP’s effects on renal, hepatic, and splanchnic blood flow

Hypertension Research:

• Blood Pressure Regulation: Studies on VIP’s antihypertensive mechanisms and hemodynamic effects
• Vascular Remodeling: Research on chronic vascular changes in hypertension models
• Endothelial Dysfunction: Investigation of VIP’s effects restoring endothelial function

Cardiovascular Protection Studies:

• Ischemia/Reperfusion: Research on cardiac protection against ischemic injury
• Arrhythmia Models: Studies on cardiac rhythm stabilization
• Heart Failure Models: Investigation of VIP’s effects in heart failure pathophysiology

Experimental approaches include isolated vessel preparations, pressure myography, blood flow measurement techniques (laser Doppler, microspheres), in vivo cardiovascular monitoring, and cardiac function assessment.

Respiratory System Research

VIP functions as a critical neurotransmitter and bronchodilator in respiratory systems:

Airway Function Studies:

• Bronchodilation Research: Investigation of VIP-mediated airway smooth muscle relaxation mechanisms
• Airway Hyperreactivity: Studies in asthma models examining bronchoconstriction and airway inflammation
• Neural Control of Airways: Research on VIP as non-adrenergic, non-cholinergic (NANC) neurotransmitter
• Mucus Secretion Studies: Investigation of VIP’s effects on mucus production and composition

Pulmonary Vascular Research:

• Pulmonary Vasodilation: Studies on pulmonary arterial smooth muscle relaxation
• Pulmonary Hypertension Models: Research examining VIP’s therapeutic potential
• Hypoxic Vasoconstriction: Investigation of VIP’s modulation of hypoxic pulmonary responses

Respiratory Disease Models:

• Asthma Research: Studies in allergen-induced and other asthma models
• COPD Models: Investigation of chronic inflammatory airway disease
• Pulmonary Fibrosis: Research on fibrotic remodeling and VIP’s anti-fibrotic effects
• Acute Lung Injury: Studies in ALI/ARDS models examining VIP’s protective mechanisms

Laboratory protocols include isolated tracheal ring preparations, precision-cut lung slices, in vivo pulmonary function testing, airway resistance measurement, and bronchoalveolar lavage analysis.

Gastrointestinal Research

VIP’s original identification as an intestinal peptide reflects important GI functions:

GI Motility Studies:

• Smooth Muscle Relaxation: Investigation of VIP’s inhibitory effects on intestinal smooth muscle
• Peristalsis Research: Studies on coordinated motor patterns and transit time
• Sphincter Function: Research on lower esophageal sphincter, pyloric sphincter, and anal sphincter regulation
• Enteric Nervous System: Investigation of VIP neurons in enteric neural circuits

Secretion Research:

• Water and Electrolyte Secretion: Studies on intestinal fluid secretion mechanisms
• Pancreatic Secretion: Research on enzyme and bicarbonate secretion regulation
• Biliary Secretion: Investigation of bile flow and composition

GI Blood Flow:

• Mesenteric Circulation: Studies on intestinal blood flow regulation
• Mucosal Perfusion: Research on mucosal blood flow and barrier function

GI Disease Models:

• Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Research in colitis models
• Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Studies on visceral hypersensitivity and motility disorders
• Gastroparesis Models: Investigation of delayed gastric emptying

Research approaches include isolated intestinal segment preparations, in vivo GI transit studies, intestinal secretion measurement, and enteric electrophysiology.

Reproductive System Research

VIP demonstrates important roles in reproductive physiology:

Male Reproductive Research:

• Erectile Function: Investigation of VIP’s role in penile smooth muscle relaxation and erection
• Sperm Function: Studies on VIP receptors in sperm and effects on motility
• Testicular Function: Research on VIP in testicular regulation

Female Reproductive Research:

• Ovarian Function: Studies on VIP in follicular development and ovulation
• Uterine Contractility: Research on myometrial relaxation and pregnancy maintenance
• Placental Function: Investigation of VIP in placental development and function

Laboratory Handling and Storage Protocols

Lyophilized Powder Storage:

• Store at -20°C to -80°C in original sealed vial
• Protect rigorously from light exposure (VIP photosensitive)
• Desiccated storage environment essential
• Inert atmosphere (nitrogen or argon) recommended for long-term storage
• Stability data available for 12+ months at -80°C
• Minimize exposure to room temperature during handling

Reconstitution Guidelines:

• Reconstitute with sterile water, bacteriostatic water (0.9% benzyl alcohol), or appropriate buffer (PBS, HEPES)
• Add solvent slowly down vial side to minimize foaming and surface denaturation
• Gentle swirling motion recommended (avoid vigorous shaking which can denature peptide)
• Allow complete dissolution at 4°C if needed (typically 2-5 minutes)
• Final pH should be 7.0-7.4 for optimal stability
• Consider adding BSA (0.1% final concentration) as carrier protein to prevent adsorption losses

Reconstituted Solution Storage:

• Short-term storage: 4°C for up to 48 hours (limited by proteolytic degradation risk)
• Preferred: Prepare fresh solutions for each experiment
• Long-term storage: -80°C in small aliquots to prevent repeated freeze-thaw
• Single-use aliquots strongly recommended
• Avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles (maximum 1-2 cycles; significant activity loss with repeated cycling)
• Consider adding protease inhibitors for cell culture applications

Special Handling Considerations:

• VIP susceptible to oxidation (methionine at position 17); consider antioxidants in some applications
• Peptide can adsorb to plastic surfaces; use low-binding microcentrifuge tubes and pipette tips
• Siliconized glass or polypropylene containers preferred over standard plastics
• Pre-rinse containers with VIP solution or BSA solution to saturate binding sites

Quality Assurance and Analytical Testing

Each VIP batch undergoes comprehensive analytical characterization:

Purity Analysis:

• High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): ≥98% purity
• Analytical method: Reversed-phase HPLC with UV detection at 220nm and 280nm
• Multiple peak integration with area normalization for accurate purity determination
• Gradient elution with acetonitrile/water/TFA system

Structural Verification:

• Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MS): Confirms molecular weight 3,326.7 Da
• High-resolution MS to verify elemental composition
• Amino acid analysis: Verifies sequence composition and quantitative amino acid content
• Peptide content determination: Quantifies actual peptide content corrected for water, salts, and counterions
• C-terminal amidation verification (critical for biological activity)

Contaminant Testing:

• Bacterial endotoxin: <5 EU/mg by LAL (Limulus Amebocyte Lysate) method
• Heavy metals: Below detection limits per USP standards
• Residual solvents: TFA and acetonitrile quantified and within ICH limits
• Water content: Karl Fischer titration (<8%)
• Microbial bioburden: Sterility testing for research-grade peptides

Functional Testing:

• Bioassay verification available for critical applications
• cAMP production assay in VPAC receptor-expressing cells
• Vasodilation bioassay in appropriate tissue preparations

Documentation:

• Certificate of Analysis (COA) provided with each batch
• Third-party analytical verification available upon request
• Stability data documented for recommended storage conditions
• Complete analytical raw data available for quality audit purposes
• Batch-specific QC results traceable by unique lot number

Research Considerations

Experimental Design Factors:

Researchers should consider multiple factors when designing VIP experiments:

1. Concentration Selection: VIP demonstrates biological activity across wide concentration ranges depending on application and receptor sensitivity. Published research reports effective concentrations from picomolar (circadian rhythm studies) to micromolar (some in vitro systems). Receptor expression levels, experimental model, and endpoint measured influence concentration selection.

2. Temporal Considerations: VIP’s extremely short plasma half-life (<2 minutes) requires careful experimental timing. For acute effects, immediate measurement post-administration is critical. For sustained effects, continuous infusion or repeated dosing protocols are necessary. Consider pharmacokinetic properties when timing sample collection and endpoint measurements.

3. Vehicle and Formulation: Peptide formulation affects stability and bioavailability. Consider pH (maintain 7.0-7.4), carrier proteins (BSA to prevent adsorption), and protease inhibitors for extended incubations. Vehicle controls must match all formulation components.

4. Route Selection: Multiple administration routes show efficacy but with different pharmacokinetic profiles. Intravenous provides immediate but brief effects; subcutaneous/intramuscular extends duration slightly; local application targets specific tissues; intranasal investigated for CNS delivery; intrathecal for direct CNS access. Route selection should align with research questions.

5. Receptor Selectivity: VIP activates both VPAC1 and VPAC2 receptors with similar affinity. For receptor-specific studies, consider selective agonists (PACAP6-38 as VPAC antagonist) or genetic models with receptor knockouts. Receptor expression patterns vary by tissue and cell type.

6. Model Selection: Choose appropriate experimental systems based on research questions. In vitro cell culture provides mechanistic insights with controlled conditions; ex vivo tissue preparations maintain tissue architecture; in vivo models capture systemic integration but increase complexity. Multiple complementary approaches strengthen conclusions.

7. Control Groups: Include appropriate vehicle controls, positive controls (where applicable), receptor antagonist controls, and comparative compounds. Time-matched controls essential for circadian studies.

Mechanism Investigation:

VIP’s mechanisms of action involve multiple signaling pathways:

Primary Signaling:

• VPAC1/VPAC2 receptor binding
• Gs protein coupling and adenylate cyclase activation
• Increased intracellular cAMP
• PKA activation and downstream phosphorylation
• CREB phosphorylation and gene transcription changes

Secondary Pathways:

• Phospholipase C activation in some systems
• Intracellular calcium modulation
• Ion channel regulation (K+ channels, Ca2+ channels)
• MAPK pathway interactions
• PI3K/Akt pathway activation

Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms:

• NF-κB inhibition
• STAT1 dephosphorylation
• STAT6 activation
• Modulation of inflammatory gene transcription
• Cytokine production changes

Mechanism studies require careful experimental design to isolate specific pathways using receptor antagonists, protein kinase inhibitors, knockout models, and pathway-specific readouts.

Reproducibility Considerations:

VIP research requires attention to factors affecting reproducibility:

• Peptide handling and storage consistency
• Stock solution preparation and aliquoting procedures
• Time of day for circadian-relevant studies
• Animal housing conditions and light cycles
• Cell passage numbers and culture conditions
• Consistent vehicle formulations
• Temperature control during experiments
• Careful documentation of all protocol details

Compliance and Safety Information

Regulatory Status:
VIP (Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide) is provided as a research chemical for in-vitro laboratory studies and preclinical research only. This product has not been approved by the FDA or other regulatory agencies for human therapeutic use, dietary supplementation, or medical applications. Some countries have investigated VIP clinically for specific indications, but no widespread therapeutic approvals exist.

Intended Use:

• In-vitro cell culture studies and biochemical assays
• In-vivo preclinical research in approved animal models with appropriate IACUC protocols
• Ex-vivo tissue and organ preparation studies
• Laboratory investigation of biological mechanisms and pathways
• Academic and institutional research applications
• Pharmaceutical research and drug development studies

NOT Intended For:

• Human consumption or administration
• Therapeutic treatment or diagnosis of any condition
• Dietary supplementation or nutraceutical use
• Veterinary therapeutic applications without appropriate regulatory oversight
• Any clinical or medical applications

Safety Protocols:

Researchers should follow standard laboratory safety practices when handling VIP:

• Use appropriate personal protective equipment (lab coat, nitrile gloves, safety glasses)
• Handle in well-ventilated areas or biological safety cabinet
• Follow institutional biosafety and chemical safety guidelines
• Dispose of waste according to institutional and local regulations for biohazardous/chemical waste
• Consult Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for additional safety information and emergency procedures
• Wash hands thoroughly after handling
• Avoid creating aerosols or dust
• Do not eat, drink, or apply cosmetics in areas where VIP is handled

Biological Safety Considerations:

VIP demonstrates biological activity at low concentrations. Researchers should:

• Minimize exposure through appropriate containment
• Use closed systems where possible
• Consider biological activity when designing waste disposal procedures
• Follow institutional exposure control plans

Animal Research Considerations:

VIP research in animal models requires:

• Appropriate IACUC protocol approval
• Compliance with institutional animal care guidelines
• Adherence to relevant regulations (Animal Welfare Act, PHS Policy, AAALAC standards)
• Proper training in animal handling and injection techniques
• Humane endpoints and monitoring protocols

—